Characteristics of the leadership process

Characteristics of the lead processStogdills definition has three key components. First, it defines leadinghiphip as an interpersonal process in which one individual seeks to shape and direct the deportment of others. Second, it sets leadership in a complaisant context. In which the members of a root word to be influenced are subordinates or followers. Third, it establishes a criterion for effective leadership in goal achievement, which is one practical objective of leadership conjecture and look. nearly definitions share these processual, contextual and evaluative components.Some key charachteristics of the leadership processLeadership is a process of influencing others primarily through the use of noncorecive influence techniques. This charachteristics distinguishes a leader from a dictator.Leadership influence is goal directed to attain defined group or organisational goalsThere are five approaches to the conduct of leadership peculiarity spying attempts to brin g out the temper trait and other related attri exclusivelyes of the effective leader in order to facilitate the selection of leaders.Style counsel attempts to characterize different leadership demeanour precedents to get wind effective and ineffective leadership modalitys. In order to improve the training and development of leaders. mount suitable contingency theories which argue that the effectiveness of particular leadership behaviours is dependent on the organisational and cultural setting, which outhouse also facilitate leadership awareness and training.New leadership attitude approaches which identify new leaders, superleaders and transformational leaders as heroic and inspirational visionaries who give social function and direction to others, with an dialect on senior executives and politicians whose motivational fiber is said to be central to organisational strategy and effectiveness.Dispersing the role a recent perspective which notes that leadership behaviour is not confined to those with formal leadership roles but give the gate be observed across the organisation hierarchy, and thus one aspect of the new superleadership role is to develop self -leadership skills in others.Any study of leadership would be incomplete without an understanding of the debate amid leaders Vs conductorsLeadership versus managementWe startle have to deal with one crucial headland what is the difference mingled with leadership and management? Some commentators argue that these terms are synonymous, as leadership is simply one facet of the management role. opposite commentators argue that this distinction is signifi potentiometert. Leaders and managers play different contributions leaders have followers, managers have subordinates.Those who make a clear distinction portray the leader as someone who develops visions and drives new initiatives, and portray the manager as someone who monitors progress towards objectives to achieve order and reliability. The lead er is prophet, catalyst and mover-shaker, focused on strategy. The manager is operator, technician and riddle solver, concerned with the here -and- now of goal attainment. The key distinguishing feature here is orientation course to change . As Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus (1985, p.21) observe, managers do things right, while leaders do the right thing.Leadership versus ManagementCreating an agendaEstablishes directionPlans and budgetsvision of the future, develops strategiesdecides actions and timetables,for change to achieve goalsallocates recoursesE Leadership functions Management functionsDeveloping peoplepositioning peopleOrganizing and staffingcommunicates vision and strategy,decides structure and allocates staff,influences creation of terms whichdevelops policies, procedures andaccept validity of goalsMonitoringExecutionMotivating and shakeControlling, problem resolving powerenergizes people to overwhelm obstacle,monitors results against plan andsatisfies human requisit estakes corrective actionsOutcomesProduces positive and somemultiplicationproduces orders, consistency anddramatic changesPredictabilityTutorial uncertaintyDiscuss Modern day organisations need leaders or managers Please handle and give relevant examples to justify your answer.Power what is it, and how can I get more than?Leadership is about influencing the behaviour of others. whizz cannot be a leader without followers. One key attribute of followers is that they must be willing to obey. Leadership is a property of the affinity between leader and follower. We need to know why people are willing to let themselves be influenced by some individuals and not by others. We thus need to understand the nature of compliance.Leadership and powerPower is a useful apprehension with which to explain the social process of interpersonal influence. Power is a detailed dimension of leadership, and the two terms are often used with the same or similar substances a leader is someone with powe r, powerful individuals are leaders.We can thus define power in much the same way that we have defined leadership-as the ability of an individual to control or influence others, or to get some-one else to do something that they would perhaps not do.There are different sources of power to name a few information power, affiliation power dependable power, all these power bases are interrelated. The exercise of one power base may affect a leaders ability to use another. The leader who resorts to powerful power may for example lose denotative power. The leader may be able to use legitimate power to enhance both referent and expert power. A leader can operate from multiple sources of power and few leaders may be able to rely on a single power base.Please see table Sources of powerp+ are positive sources of powerp- are negative sources of powerPOWER standpointEXPLANATIONPERCEIVED ASRewardremuneration, award, compliment, symbolicp+gestures of praiseCoercionphysical or psychological inju ry, symbolic gesturesof disdain, demotion, unwanted transfer,withholding resourcesp-potenceManagement right to control, obligation of othersp-to obey, playing the boss and abusing authorityexercise of leadership in times of crisis or needp+Referentappellation based on personal characteristics,sometimes on perception of charisma or reciprocalidentification based on friendship, association,sharing information, common interests, determineand preferencesp+ExpertPossession of specialized knowledge valued byOthers, used to help others, given freely when solicited.p+Unsolicited expertness effects barriers expertiseOfferedcondescendingly is coercive withholdingexpertise in times of needp-Informationaccess to information that is not public knowledge,because of position or connections can exist atall organizational levels secretaries and personalassistants to executives often have informationpower, and can control information flowsp-Affiliationborrowed from an authority source-executiveSecr etaries and assistants act as surrogates for theirSuperiorsp+acting on their own self-interest using negativeaffiliation powerby applying accounting andpersonal policies rigidlyp-Group corporate problem solving, conflict resolution,creative brainstorming group resolution greaterThan the individual contribution.p+a few individual dominating the proceedings,groupthinkp-Tutorial questionDiscuss Which power base or which combination of power bases would you expect to be well-nigh effective for an organisation leader in current times?Five approaches to LeadershipResearch on leadership shows five main approaches in the study of leadership and that leadership theories have evolved gradually starting from the Trait spotting approach to New Leadership theoriesTrait spotting the research for personality markersFor the first four decades of the twentieth century, researches assumed that they could identify the personality traits of leaders It would then be possible to select individuals who possessed those traits and to promote them into leadership position.This search for the qualities of good leaders was influenced by great man theory, which claims that (predominantly male) leaders are born as such, and emerge to take power, regardless of the social, organisational or historical context.Great man theory is a historical perspective based on the premises that the fate of societies, and organizations, is in the hands of key, powerful, idiosyncratic (male) individuals who by force of personality reach positions of influence from which they can direct and dominate the lives of others.Typical constitute of qualitiesStrong drive for responsibilityFocus on completing the labourVigour and persistence in pursuit of goalsVenturesomeness and originality in problem solvingDrive to exercise initiative in social settingsSelf-potencySense of personal identityWillingness to accept consequences of decisions and actionsReadiness to absorb interpersonal stressWillingness to hurt frus tration and delayAbility to influence the behaviour of othersCapacity to structure social corpses to the purpose in hand.Rosemay Stewart (1963) cites a study in which American executives were asked to identify indispensable leadership qualities. They came up with the following fifteen traitsjudgementinitiativeintegrityforesightenergydriveHuman relations skilldecisionDependabilityemotional stabilityfairnessambitiondedicationobjectivityCo-operationLimitations of the trait spotting theoryIt is difficult to challenge the diagnose of qualities cited by all Stogdill or Stewart. Can we say that effective leaders should lack judgement, be low in energy, be undependable, lack drive, ambition, creativity and integrity and have precise foresight? What happens when we compare Stewart with Stogdill? Both identify drive as a key trait. However, Stogdill lists venturesomeness, self-confidence, stress tolerance and system structuring as traits which Stewarts omits. Stewart identifies foresight, fairness, integrity, fairness and co-operation, which are wanting(p) from Stogdills list.Traits spotting presents several difficulties. First, there are more attributes here than personality traits. Second, these attributes are vague. Third, many of the items on these lists describe skills and behaviour patterns which have to be observed, quite an than personality traits that can be assessed by questionnaires or interview persistence in pursuit of goals, ability to influence others. It is difficult to see how trait spotting can be used effectively in leadership selection context, as originally intended.A further problem lies with the observation that one list of good leadership qualities is as good as another. Stogdills review revealed some overlap between research findings, but it is also revealed disagreement and inconsistency. This line of research has been unable to establish a consistent set of leadership traits of attributes. Leadership is about power and influence, the che mistry of which it is difficult to analyse in terms of personality traits.Style counselling the search for effective behaviour patternsDisillusionment with the traits approach meant that leadership, management and supervisory bearing became a major focus for research. Attention switched from selecting leaders on personality traits to training and developing leaders in appropriate behaviour patterns. This research tradition argues that a considerate, participative, democratic and involving leadership course is more effective than an impersonal, autocratic and directive style.Two research projects, the Michigan and Ohio studies, in the 1940s and 1950s underpinned Employee- centred behaviour pore on relationships and employee needsemployee-centred behaviour focusing on relationships and employee needs line of merchandise-centred behaviour focusing consideration is a pattern of leadership behavior that demonstrates sensitivity to relationships and to the social needs of employees.In itiating structure is a pattern of leadership behavior that emphasizes setance of the flow in hand and the achievement of product and service goals.Consistent with the Michigan studies, the Ohio results identified two categories of leadership behaviour, favor and initiating structure. The considerate leader is needs- and the relationship- oriented. The leader who structures hammer for subordinates is task-oriented.The considerate leader is interested in and listens to subordinates, allows participation in decision making, is friendly and approachable, helps subordinates with personal problems and is prepared to mount them if necessary. The leaders behaviour indicates genuine rely, measure, warmth and rapport. This enhances subordinates feeling of self-esteem and hikes the development of communications and relationships in a work group. The researches first called this leadership dimension social sensitivity.The leader initiating structure plans ahead, decides how thing are g oing to get done, structures tasks and assigns work, makes expectation clear, emphasizes deadlines and achievement, and expects subordinates to follow instructions. The leaders behaviour stresses production and the achievement of organisational goals. This type of behaviour can stimulate enthusiasm to achieve objectives as well as encouraging and helping subordinates to get the work done. This is the kind of emphasis that the scientific management shallow encouraged, except that here it is recognised that task orientation can have a positive motivating aspect. The researches first called this leadership dimension production emphasis.Consideration and structure are independent behaviour patterns and do not represent the extremes of a continuum. A leader can emphasize one or both. contemplate satisfaction is likely to be postgraduateer and grievances and labour overturn lower where the leader emphasizes consideration. Task performances, on the other hand, is likely to be higher wh ere the leader emphasizes the initiation of structure. Inconsiderate leaders typically have subordinates who complain and who are more likely to leave the organisation, but can have comparatively full-bodied work groups if they are high on initiating structure.Initiating structureHigh lowHigh performance low performanceHigh few grievances few grievances disordered turnover low turnoverConsiderationLow High performance low performanceMany grievances many grievancesHigh turnover high turnoverFigure 1 The Ohio State leadership theory predictionsThe influential work of another University of Michigan researcher, Rensis Likert(1961), reinforced the benefits of considerate performance-oriented leadership. He found that supervisors in passing productive sections were more likely toReceive general as opposed to last supervision from their superiorGive general as opposed to close supervision to their subordinatesEnjoy their responsibility and authoritySpend more time on supervisionBe empl oyee- rather than production-orientedSupervisors in sections where productivity was low were production-oriented and pure on keeping their subordinates busy on achieving targets on time. The effective supervisors were not just concerned with employee needs. They were seen as subordinates as emphasizing high performance and had a contagious enthusiasm for achieving goals. Likert and his team identified four main styles or systems of leadershipSystem 1 Exploitative autocratic, in which the leaderHas no confidence and invest in subordinatesImposes decisions, never delegatesMotivates by threatHas little communication and team work.System 2 Benevolent authoritative, in which the leaderHas superficial, condescending sureness in subordinatesImposes decisions, never delegatesMotivates by rewardSometimes involves subordinates in solving problems.System 3 Participative, in which the leaderHas some incomplete confidence and trust in subordinatesListens to subordinates but controls decision makingMotivates by reward and some involvementUses ideas and opinions of subordinates constructively.System 4 Democratic, in which the leaderHas complete confidence and trust in subordinatesAllows subordinates to make decisions for themselvesMotivates by reward for achieving goals set by participationShares ideas and opinion.Likerts research showed that effective supervisors were those who adopted either system 3 or system 4 leadership, what Likert called and alternative organisational lifestyle.Tutorial question The style counselling leadership approach is extremely relevant in current times Discuss this statement.Context fitting the development of contingency theoriesThe Michigan and Ohio perspectives offer leaders one best way to handle followers, by adopting the high-consideration, high-structure ideal. This advice is supported by the fact that most people like their leaders to be considerate, even when they are performance- oriented as well. The main criticism of this perspecti ve lies with the observation that one leadership style may not be effective in all circumstances.Departing from one best way, Robert Tannenbaum and Warren Schmidt (1958) presented the autocratic- democratic choice as a continuum, from boss centred leadership at one extreme to subordinate- centred leadership at the other. This is illustrated in presage 2Subordinate-centred leadershipBoss- centred leadershipThe contingency theory of leadership is a perspective which states that leaders to be effective must adapt their style in a manner consistent with aspects such as the work context, attributes of workers and the nature of the work to be doneUse of authority by the managerArea of freedom for subordinates animal trainer Manager Manager Manager presents Manager presents Manager defines Manager permitsmakes decisions sells presents ideas tentative decision problem, gets limits asks group subordinates toand announces it. Decisions. and invites subject to change. suggestion, makes to mak e decision. function within limitsquestions. Decision. defined bysuperior.The Tannenbaum-Schmidt continuum of leadership behaviorThe steps in this continuum are represented as alternatives for the leader their article was subtitled should the manager be democratic or autocratic- or something in between? Tannenbaum and Schmidt argue that the answer depends on three sets of forcesForces in the manager personality, values, preferences, beliefs aboutEmployee participation, confidence in subordinatesForces in the subordinates need for independence, tolerance of ambiguityKnowledge of the problem, expectations of involvementForces in the situation organizational norms, size and location of workGroups, effectiveness of teamworking, nature ofThe problemHaving concentrated on forces in the manager, having challenged the notion of one best way, to lead, research now considered aspects of the context in which the leader was operate the people being led, the nature of the work they were doing, and the wider organisational setting. This perspective suggests that leaders must be able to diagnose the context and be able to decide what behaviour will fit. As the best style is contingent on the situation, this approach is referred to as the contingency theory of leadership.Tutorial questionLeadership research and theory seems to be consistent in arguing that a considerate, employee- cantered, participative and democratic style is more effective.What factors in an organisational context would make an inconsiderate, goal- centred, impersonal and autocratic leadership style more effective?Contingency theory of leadership contdAnother influential contingency theory of leadership was developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard (1988). They retrieve that leaders can alter their style to fit the context.Hersey and Blanchard call their approach situational leadership, summarised in fig 3, which describe leader behaviour on two dimensions.The first dimension (horizontal axis) concerns task behaviour, or the add together of direction a leader gives to subordinates. This can vary from specific instructions, at one extreme, to complete delegation, at the other. Hersey and Blanchard identify two intermediate positions, where leaders either facilitate subordinates decisions or take care to explain their own.Situational leadership is an approach to determining the most effective style of influencing, taking into accounts of direction and support the leader gives, the band and maturity of followers to perform a particular task.The second dimension (vertical axis) concerns supportive behaviour and the amount of social backup a leader gives to subordinates. This can vary from limited communication, at one extreme, to considerable listening, facilitating and supporting at the other.The model establishes four sanctioned leadership styles, labelled S1 to S4S1 Telling High amounts of task behaviour, telling subordinates what to do, when to do it and how to do it, but with little leadership behaviour.S2 Selling High amounts of both task behaviour and relationship behaviour.S3 Participating Lots of relationship behaviour and support, but little direction of task behaviour.S4 Delegating Not much task behaviour or relationship behaviour.Share ideas and Explain decisions and provideFacilitate decision making. Opportunity for clarification.PARTICIPATING S3 S2 SELLINGDELAGATING TELLINGTurn over responsibility entrust specific instructionsFor decisions and and closely superviseImplementation performance.S4 S1(Supporting Behavior/Relationship Behavior RRELATIONSHIP BEHAVIOURLow TASK BEHAVIOUR high(GUIDANCE)High Moderate lowR4 R3 R2 R1Able andwilling orconfidentFollower ReadinessAble but unwillingOr insecure unavailing and unwillingOr insecureUnable but willingOr confidentFollower directed leader directedHersey and Blanchard also argue that the readiness of followers to perform a particular task is a key factor. This is explained by the lower portion of the figure in which follower readiness is raddled on a continuum, with insecure subordinates unwilling to act at one extreme to confident followers able and willing to perform at the other. superpose the readiness continuum on the top half of the model and you have a basis for selecting an effective leadership style. It is compelling and consistent with other theories to suggest that insecure subordinates need telling while willing and confident groups can be left to do the job.Tutorial question Take an organisation of your choice and discuss the relevance and significance of the Hersey and Blanchard situational leadership theory.Leadership in the twenty-first centuryTwo related trends in leadership thinking are now observableRecognition of the role of heroic, powerful, charismatic, visionary leader.Recognition of the role of information leadership, at all levels.These trends appear to be contradictory. We have the new leader, who is a rational figure motivating followers to superlat ive levels of achievement. However, we have also the super leader, who is able to lead other lead themselves .The super leader thus encourage, develops and co-exists with informal leadership dispersed throughout the organisation hierarchy.The new leader is an indispensable and inspirational visionary, a coach, a facilitator concerned with building a shared sense of purpose and mission, with creating a culture which ensures that everyone is aligned with the organisations goals and is skilled and empowered to go and achieve them.The super leader is a leader who is able to develop leadership mental ability in other, developing and empowering them, reducing their dependence on formal leaders, stimulating their motivation, commitment and creativity.The new leadership theory originates from the work of McGregor Burns (1978), who distinguished between transactional and transformational leaders.The transactional leader is a leader who treats relationship with followers in terms of an exchan ge, giving followers what they want in return for what the leader desires, following positivistic tasks to pursue established goals.Transactional leaders see their relationship with formers in term of trade, swaps or bargains. Transformational leaders are characterised as individuals who inspire and motivates others to go beyond contract, to perform at unexpected levels. Although Burns saw these two types of leadership it was easy to see why some commentators equate transactional with management, and transformational with leadership.The transactional leader is a leader who treats relationship with followers in terms of an exchange, giving followers what they want in return for what the leader desires, following prescribed tasks to pursue established goals.The transformational leader is a leader who treats relationships with followers in terms of motivation and commitment , influencing and inspiring followers to give more than mechanical compliance and to improve organisational perf ormanceTransformational leadership occurs when leadersStimulates others to see what they are doing from new perspectivesArticulate the mission or vision of the organisationDevelop others to higher levels of ability andMotivates others to put organisational interest to begin with self-interest.They achieve this, according to Bass and Avolio, by using one or more of Idealised influenceact as role models, attract admiration, respectand trust, put needs of others before personalinterest, take risks and demonstrate highstandards of ethical conductInspirational motivationmotivate and inspire by providing meaning andchallenge, arouse team spirit, show enthusiasmand optimism, communicate expectations,demonstrate commitmentIntellectual stimulationquestion assumptions, reframe problems,approach old issues in new ways, encourageinnovation and creativity, avoid public criticismof mistakesIndividualised considerationattend to individual needs for growth andachievement, act as coach or mentor, c reate newlearning opportunities, accept individualDifferences, avoid close monitoring.The transformational leader is a leader who threats relationship with followers in terms of motivation and commitment, influencing and inspiring followers to give more than mechanical compliance and to improve organizational performance. It is tempting to regard the profusion of new terms and the shift in emphasis in leadership theory and research as a systematic development of earlier ideas. However, the identification of new, super, transformational leaders represent a simplification of the concept of leadership, returning to trait spotting (hunt the visionary) and overlooks what is known about the influences of a range of contextual factors on leadership effectiveness.Tutorial questionConsidering senior business and governmental leaders with whom you are familiar, either directly or through the media, which come closest to these definitions of new leader, super leader and transformational leade r?The new, super, transformational leader looks like a one best way approach. Does this vindicate trait spotting and discredit contingency perspectives?Dispersing the leadership roleIn the distinction between leadership and management, orientation to change is a defining characteristic, a distinctive mark of the leader. These results suggest, therefore, that leadership is a widespread phenomenon. Leadership behaviours are dispersed rather than concentrated in the hands of formally appointed managers. Leadership functions are best carried out by people who have the interest, knowledge, skills and motivation to perform them effectively. This observation is reinforced by the development of self-managing autonomous teams, which often have no leaders, or have coach-facilitators whose role is to develop team skills. These coaching- facilitating are super leaders.Recognition of dispersed leadership does not imply a shift of focus away from formal, senior figures. It may be useful to separa te notions of leadership from formal positions and prestige job titles. However, it is necessary to recognise that senior figures with prestige title continue to exercise leadership roles and functions as well.This twin-track approach, which combines recognition of visionary new leadership with the notion of a widely dispersed leadership decoupled from high office, is illustrated by Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus (1985). Their model of twenty-first century leadership (in which the new role of the leader is to be (leader of leaders) is summarised in table 4.